Creating a positive learning environment

A positive learning environment is one that encourages learners to achieve their potential, identifies and accommodates their individual needs and learning preferences, and deals sensitively with issues that arise within groups in the most effective and productive manner. A safe learning environment encourages questioning and sees “failure” as an opportunity to learn. Creating a positive learning environment affects many factors including the physical environment, temperature, colorful decorations, planning, students’ work on the walls etc.  

Importance of having positive learning environment

Creating a positive learning environment in your classroom will allow your students to feel comfortable, safe and engaged – something that all students deserve. In a classroom where values and roles remain constant and focus is placed on the positive aspects of learning, students will be more open to actively participating in class (footprintsrecruiting, 2001).

If they are given the opportunity to become responsible for their own learning, students will be more likely to benefit from the lesson, and thus more likely to be self-motivated. This should be a primary goal for all teachers, since lack of motivation is often the root of disciplinary issues (footprintsrecruiting, 2001).

 The goals of classroom management

One of the most important areas that have to be taken account when we talk about positive learning environment is classroom management. Classroom management is the term educators use to describe methods of preventing misbehavior and dealing with it if it arises. In other words, it is the techniques teachers use to maintain control in the classroom. Classroom management is one of the most feared parts of teaching for new teachers. For the students, lack of effective classroom management can mean that learning is reduced in the classroom. For the teacher, it can cause unhappiness and stress and eventually lead to individuals leaving the teaching profession (Mellisa Kelly, 2013). Motivated, engaged, challenged, and successful students are well behaved, not because they’ve been threatened but because they are too busy engaged in learning to misbehave. The goal of classroom management is not quiet classrooms, it’s productive students. The goals of classroom management are elaborated as below.

(a) To create and maintain a positive, productive learning environment.

This goal is not meant for absolute control or to create an inert, docile, and totally compliant classroom and student body. Rather, an effective classroom management is to maintain students’ interest, motivation and involvement. Thus, the focus is on activities that create positive, productive and facilitative learning environment (asiauniversity, n.d).

 (b) To support and foster a safe classroom community.

Another goal of classroom management is to support and foster a safe classroom community. It means that students are allowed to make the connections needed for learning to take place. Each student needs to feel comfortable enough to discuss their previous understanding without fear of being ridiculed for their misconceptions. In order to make the students comfortable enough to take these intellectual risks, it is necessary to set up the rules and routines which:

• The rules and routines will give them a structure in which to interact with the teacher and each other.
• The rules and routines need to be necessary, fair and specific if the students are to be expected to follow them.
• Each rule or routine should come with a verbal or written description of why the rule is needed. If the rule is too vague on its own, examples should be given (asiauniversity, n.d).

 Disruptive and disturbed behaviour

Disruptive behaviour is the behaviour that is problematic or inappropriate in the context of a given activity or for a certain teacher.  It is also called as problematic behaviour, such daydreaming, drowsiness, wriggling, mild interruptions, unnecessary and excessive movement, or those that disrupt the flow of activity for the whole group such as calling out, arguing, shouting, swearing, fighting and so on. According to my experience, this was one of the challenges that teachers are facing when talk about classroom management. Dealing with misbehavior. If teachers are successful enough to deal with these types of students 50% of the classroom management is done. I believe that there will not be a fixed procedure that can be applied to all misbehaving students. It may vary depending on the type of behavior, nature of the students, the consequences of the behavior, etc. So, as a teacher, its our duty to learn various classroom management theories and apply those theories most effectively in order to create positive learning environment in our classrooms.

 

References

asiauniversity, (n.d). Classroom management. Retrieved 10^th May 2013, from http://www.bobbijokenyon.com/crm/AEU_classroom_management.pdf

footprintsrecruiting, (2001). Create a Positive Learning Environment. Retrieved 8^th May 2013, from http://www.footprintsrecruiting.com/for-teachers/teachers-playground/tips-for-teachers/564-create-a-positive-learning-environment

Mellisa Kelly, (2013). Definition of Classroom Management. Retrieved 8^th May 2013, from http://712educators.about.com/od/classroomhelpers/g/Definition-Of-Classroom-Management.htm

 

Assessment and Evaluation

A common image evoked by the mention of educational assessment is that of paper -and pencil tests- especially standardized, multiple-choice tests.

Assessment: A general term that includes the full range of procedures used to collect information about student learning with the purpose of making decisions about students’ learning progress. We can collect information-using tests, observations and interviews etc.

Test: Test is a set of tasks or questions intended to elicit particular type of behaviour, which is administered during a fixed period of time under a reasonably comparable condition for students to yield a score.

Measurement: Assigning of numbers to the results of a test or other type of assessment according to a specific rule. For example; counting correct answers or awarding points for particular aspects of an essay). Measurement answers the question “How much”. To measure, we have to use certain instruments.

Evaluation: To make decision, one has to evaluate which is the process of making judgment about a given situation. Evaluation is the comparison of what is measured against some defined criteria and to determine whether it has been achieved, whether it is appropriate, whether it is good, whether it is reasonable, whether it is valid and so forth.

Purpose of assessment

The measurement of impart of knowledge is needed for several reasons,

• To report students’ performance to concerned authorities; school management, ministry of education, parents etc.
• To measure the effectives of one’s teaching strategies is parallel comparison with performance of students
• To provide additional help and guidance for poor performance students
• For planning lessons to suite learners’ needs
• For further research and statistical analysis need

Methods used for assessing students

Assessment techniques or methods can take many different forms. These incudes;

Tests (Essay test, Objective Test)

Project/ Assignment Techniques
Socio-metric Techniques
Interviews
Class attendances
Rating Scale
Check List
Inventory etc
 
Types of classroom assessments

There are mainly two types of Assessments. They are:

(1) Assessment for learning (formative Assessment)

Assessment for learning is ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be successful. This assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make adjustments to their learning (Alberta, 2008). Examples: Continuous assessment used in Child Friendly Classrooms in the Maldives.

 (2) Assessment of learning (summative assessment)

Assessment of learning is the picture in time that lets the teacher, students and their parents know how well each student has completed the learning tasks and activities. It provides information about student achievement. While it provides useful reporting information, it often has little effect on learning (Alberta, 2008). Examples: Term tests, Unit tests etc.

 Differences between Norm-referenced and Criterion referenced assessments

Norm- referenced Assessment

This is assessment that is based on comparing the relative performances of students, either by comparing the performances of individual students within the group being tested, or by comparing their performance with that of others of similar age, experience and background. Such assessment may simply involve ranking the students, or may involve scaling their marks or grades so that they fall on a standard distribution of some sort (The Robert Gordon University, 1998).

 Criterion Referenced Assessment

Here, the performance of students or trainees is assessed against pre-determined criteria, without regard to their performance relative to one another. Such assessment generally involves determining whether the student or trainee can carry out specific tasks or activities, within a particular situation or context, and to a set minimum standard. It is normally carried out on a 'pass/fail' basis, or, in modern parlance, on a 'competent/not-yet-competent' basis, with no attempt being made to assign numerical marks to the performance (The Robert Gordon University, 1998).

 General principles of assessment

1.  Clearly specifying what is to be assessed has priority in the assessment process. This includes the preparation of table of specification. 

2.  An assessment procedures selected must be valid and relevant to the characteristics or performance to be measured. Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. Reliability of a test refers to the consistency of a measure. A test considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly.

3.   Assessment is a means to an end, not an end in its self. The use of assessment procedure implies that some useful purpose is being served and that the user is clearly aware of this purpose.

 

References

Alberta, (2008). Types of Classroom Assessment. Retrieved 8^th May 2013, from http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/mewa/html/assessment/types.html

The Robert Gordon University, (1998). Norm-referenced, criterion-referenced and ipsative assessment. Retrieved 8^th May 2013, from http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/celt/pgcerttlt/assessing/assess5.htm

Effective instructional strategies

Strategies are the means or ways that we use to teach material to our students. Our choice of methods depends on what we want to teach (content), whom we are teaching, and the level of competence expected. (Christopher & Lynn Manfred, n.d).

Research shows that many strategies have proven to be effective in teaching different subjects. These strategies have facilitated blending academic and career/technical subjects to make learning more meaningful for students who learn best by doing. Instructional techniques generally focus on engaging students in learning by reading, writing, strengthening understanding and reasoning skills in math, delving into textbooks and materials, doing lab projects in science, and using literacy and hands-on projects and problems in social studies (Monty Wilson, 2012). The research conducted by Dr. Shahida Sajjad, the Assistant Professor of Department of Special Education of University of Karachi in Pakistan about effective teaching methods at higher education level shows the following instructional strategies are effective among the students.

(1) Lecture:

A lecture is a talk or verbal presentation given by a lecturer, trainer or speaker to an audience. With all the advancement of training systems and computer technology, lecture method is still a backbone widely used in teaching and training at any level of education. This method is economical, can be used for a large number of students, material can be covered in a structured manner and the teacher has a great control of time and material.

 (2) Discussion:

It is a free verbal exchange of ideas between group members or teacher and students. For effective discussion the students should have prior knowledge and information a bout the topic to be discussed.  Students rated group discussion (class discussion) as the second best method by giving reasons that; it has more participation of students, the learning is more effective, the students don’t have to rely on rote learning, every student give his/ her opinion, and this method develops creativity among students.

 (3) Role Play:

Role-play occurs when participants take on differentiated roles in a simulation. These may be highly prescribed, including biographical details, and even personality, attitudes and beliefs; or loosely indicated by an outline of the function or task. These techniques have already demonstrated their applicability to a wide range of learners, subjects and levels. It is a memorable and enjoyable learning method. To gain maximum benefits from this method, the incidents selected for performance should be as realistic as the situation allows.

 (4) Case Study:

Primarily developed in business and law contexts, case method teaching can be productively used in liberal arts, engineering, and education. This method is basically used to develop critical thinking and problem - solving skills, as well as to present students with real -life situations.

 (5) Brainstorming:

It is a loosely structured form of discussion for generating ideas without participants embroiled in unproductive analysis. It is a very useful technique for problem solving, decision-making, creative thinking and team building. It develops listening skills.

 (6) Assignment method:

Written assignments help in organization of knowledge, assimilation of facts and better preparation of examinations. It emphasizes on individual pupil work and the method that helps both teaching and learning processes (Kochhar, 2000, p.358).

 Conclusion:

There are many other methods of effective instructional techniques widely used by teachers. Such as, demonstration, problem solving, Jigsaw, debates, concept mapping, drill and practice etc. It is also important to evaluate effectiveness of these strategies by ways of peer review, self-evaluation, teaching portfolios, student achievement and students’ ratings of teaching methods used by their teachers. Teachers also need to educate students in effective ways of giving precise feedback that addresses specific aspects of their learning experience.

 

References

Christopher & Lynn Manfred, (n.d).  Instructional Methods and Strategies. Retrieved 22^nd April 2013, from http://familymed.uthscsa.edu/ACE/chapter5.htm

Monty Wilson, (2012). Preparing All Teachers to Use Proven, Effective

Instructional Methods Across the Curriculum. Retrieved 22^nd April 2013, from http://publications.sreb.org/2012/12V08w_BestPractices_InstructionalMethods.pdf

Shahida Sajjad, (n.d). EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS AT HIGHER

EDUCATION LEVEL. Retrieved 22^nd April 2013, from http://class.web.nthu.edu.tw/ezfiles/669/1669/img/1381/1.Effectiveteachingmethodsathighereducationlevel.pdf

Students Diversity

The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means understanding that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual differences.  These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies. 

What strategies can be used in diverse classrooms?

 The following techniques could be used students with diverse classrooms.

1) DEMONSTRATION OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS

Expectations are internal processes that arise from our belief systems and values. The research on working with diverse students cites low teacher expectations as a major contributor to the achievement gap. Educators must be willing to explore our beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions that lead to low expectations and accept responsibility for the influence they have on student learning. Examples include:

• Teachers provide specific and timely feedback to students about their work.
• Teachers demonstrate persistence in their efforts to help students meet standards by changing instructional approaches to meet the needs of each student.
• Students are taught challenging, rigorous curriculum in ways that capitalize on the strengths of their learning style.

2) IMPLEMENTATION OF CULTURALLY RELEVANT INSTRUCTION

Shade, Kelly, and Oberg (1997) suggest that culturally responsive instruction is not just the educational soup du jour and cannot be dismissed as “just good teaching.” References to culturally relevant instruction are a mainstay in the research on strategies for closing the existing achievement gaps by race/ethnicity. Culturally relevant instruction includes:

(a)   Cooperative learning

Research has consistently endorsed the use of structured cooperative learning as a major strategy for teaching in diverse learning environments. Cooperative learning provides learners with essential opportunities to use language in meaningful, purposeful, and interesting ways, build self-esteem and self-confidence, and develop academic, communication, and social skills.

(b)   Instructional conversations

Instructional conversations are extended dialogues between teachers and students for the purpose of developing students’ language and thinking skills and to guide the learning process. These interactive discussions provide teachers with essential opportunities to know students, assess their learning, and to contextualize instruction to meet students’ academic needs and base of experience.

(c)    Cognitively guided instruction

In effective classrooms students’ sense of autonomy and efficacy are developed through explicit instruction on cognitive strategies. Teaching cognitive strategies scaffolds instruction for students and enables them to self-monitor learning and to know how to navigate successfully through difficult learning situations.

(d)   Technology-enriched instruction

In technology -enriched instruction teachers use multimedia and other technology to facilitate student learning through active engagement. Multimedia facilitates auditory skill development of English language learners by integrating visual and auditory input.

 

3) ESTABLISHMENT OF CARING RELATIONSHIPS

James P. Comer said, “No significant learning can occur without a significant relationship.” Caring relationships between teachers and students are not a frill, but integral to academic success. In effective classrooms the strengths of every student are recognized, respected, and valued as students and teachers share the roles of expert, researcher, teacher, and learner. How could we do this?

• New immigrant students are carefully paired with a “buddy” who can help them navigate their new school environment.

• Share leadership among students through collaborative learning activities.
• Encourage students to participate in extra- and co-curricular activities in the school.

4) PARENT AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

Parent and community involvement in schools has long been linked as having a positive effect on student achievement. Recent studies indicate that effective home-school partnerships increase grades, test scores, attendance, graduation rates, post-secondary enrollments, and homework completion. How could we do this?

• Provide frequent feedbacks about their children’s progress through counseling.
• Schools can work through community centers and key community members to help parents understand the education process.
• Teachers can make one-on-one connections with parents to develop personalized relationships with families.

 

This was a summary of a research review taken from www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/.../diversity/diversity_article.pdf

Understanding Learner Characteristics & Learning Styles

What is a learning style?

Ellis (1985) described a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a person perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information (Ellis, 1985; cited in BBC, 2010).

The Dunns define learning style as “the way in which each person begins to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and difficult academic content” (Dunn, Denig, & Lovelace, 2001, cited in Lewis Media 2001).

Where do learning styles come from?

Your students' learning styles will be influenced by their genetic factors, their previous learning experiences, their culture and the society they live in.

 What types of learning styles are there?

There are many ways of looking at learning styles. Here are some of the classification systems that researchers have developed.

(1) Visual learners: Here are some of the characteristics of visual learners.    

            look at the teacher's face intently

            like looking at wall displays, books etc.

            often recognize words by sight

            use lists to organize their thoughts

            recall information by remembering how it was set out on a page

 

(2) Auditory learners: Here are some of the characteristics of auditory learners.    

            like the teacher to provide verbal instructions

            like dialogues, discussions and plays

            solve problems by talking about them

            use rhythm and sound as memory aids

 

(3) Tactile learners: Here are some of the characteristics of tactile learners.    

            learn best when they are involved or active

            find it difficult to sit still for long periods

            use movement as a memory aid

            use writing and drawing as memory aids

            learn well in hands-on activities like projects and demonstrations

 

Why should teachers know about learning styles?

Sue Davidoff and Owen van den Berg (1990) suggest four steps: plan, teach / act, observe and reflect. Here are some guidelines for each step.

(1) Students learn better and more quickly if the teaching methods used match their preferred learning styles.

(2) As learning improves, so too does self esteem. This has a further positive effect on learning.

(3) Students who have become bored with learning may become interested once again.

(4) The student-teacher relationship can improve because the student is more successful and is more interested in learning.

 

Types of giftedness and Multiple Intelligences

Gardner defines intelligence as “a biological and psychological potential; that potential is capable of being realized to a greater or lesser extent as a consequence of the experiential, cultural, and motivational factors that affect a person” (Gardner, 1995, cited in Lewis Media 2001). 

Howard Gardner asserts there are at least seven modalities (referred to as intelligences) that can be used to describe your individual style. His work encourages everyone to think about learning in new and creative ways. This work suggests people can be:

 Verbal-linguistic: This is the ability to effectively use words and language. Children who have this type of giftedness are usually good storytellers, writers, listeners, speakers and have good auditory skills and good vocabulary. They often grow up to be journalists, politicians, lawyers, teachers etc.

 Musical: Theses learners think in terms of sounds and rhythms. The skills set of these learners includes an ability to sing or play a musical instrument, the recognition of tonal patterns or musical composition. These students tends to become musicians or singers.

 Logical-mathematical: Children with this type of giftedness think logically in terms of numbers and pieces of mathematical information. These learners are good problem solvers, always analyzing the world around them, looking for logical patterns. These learners usually pursue career paths in science, engineering, programming, information technology, accounting etc.

 Spatial/Visual: This type of giftedness allows the child to think in pictures and create vibrant mental pictures. They excel in completing puzzles, understanding charts, graphs and maps. They can grow up to be sculptors, architects, engineers, artists etc.

 Bodily-kinesthetic: These learners are able to control their body with grace and ease. They are highly skilled athletes and manual workers. Students with this type of giftedness can pursue careers in athletes, dancing, art, technical labor etc.

 Interpersonal: Interpersonal intelligence is a keen ability to relate and understand others. These children often feel great empathy for others, excel at developing compromises, keeping the piece, and facilitating diplomacy. These children may grow up to be politicians, salesperson, counselors, advertisers etc.

 Intrapersonal: Intrapersonal intelligence is a type of giftedness that grants the ability to self-reflect and investigates one’s own motives, desires, and beliefs. Philosophy, religion, behavioural science and research are potential career paths for students with high intrapersonal intelligence.

 

Multiple intelligences and Learning styles – overlap?

Ernest, this is a great question because learning styles and multiple intelligences are often perceived as similar models or even part of the same model.  There are some similarities and many differences.

A difference between the two models is found in their names—Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles. The fundamental construct of Gardner’s theory is intelligence, whereas the Dunns’ is learning.  There is a world of difference between the study of intelligence and learning and, of course, the two constructs share broad territory also.  Gardner’s theory about multiple intelligences  “makes no claims whatsoever to deal with issues beyond the intellect” and it was “a theory that was developed without specific educational goals in mind” (Gardner, 1995, cited in Lewis Media 2001).  In contrast the Dunn and Dunn Learning-Styles Model’s purpose is to improve academic achievement by matching how a person learns, her/his learning style preferences, with the ways s/he is taught.

  

References

BBC, (2010). Learning styles and teaching. Retrieved April 1^st 2013, from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/learning-styles-teaching

Lewis Media, (2001). Multiple intelligences and Learning styles – overlap? Retrieved April 1^st 2013, from http://www.wellbalancedpianist.com/forum/index.php?topic=48

Marcia Cornner, (1997). Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved April 1^st 2013, from http://marciaconner.com/resources/learning-styles-intro/

Motivation

Motivation is typically defined as the forces that account for the arousal, selection, direction and continuation of behaviour. Many factors determine whether the students in your classes will be motivated or not motivated to learn. Different theoretical interpretation shed light on why some students in a given learning situation are more likely to want to learn than others. The following are the summary of the different views on motivation.

1. Behavioural views of motivation

Behavioural learning theory assumes that students are motivated to complete a task by being promised a reward of some kind. Sometime it is a token that can be traded in for some desired objects; and at other times the reward may be the privilege of engaging in a self selected activity.

2. Social learning views of motivation

Social learning theorists call attention to the importance of observation, imitation and vicarious reinforcement. For example, a student who observes an older sister reaping benefits from earning high grades may strive to the same, with the expectation of experiencing the same or similar benefits. Both vicarious and direct reinforcement will raise an individual sense of self-efficacy for a particular task, which in turn leads to higher level of motivation.

3. Humanistic views of motivation

According to this theory, human are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always do so unless obstacles are placed in their way. These obstacles include hunger, thirst, financial problems, safety issues, or anything else that takes our focus away from maximum psychological growth. The best way to describe this theory is to utilize the famous pyramid developed by Abraham Maslow (1970) called the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow believed that humans have specific needs that must be met and that if lower level needs go unmet, we cannot possible strive for higher level needs. (Heffner Media Group, 1999).

4. Cognitive views of motivation

Cognitive theorists emphasis that human behaviour is influenced by the way people think about themselves and their environment. The direction that behaviour takes can be explained by four influences.

• The inherent need to construct an organized and logically consistent knowledge base

• One’s expectation for successfully completing a task

• The factors that one believes account for success and failure

• One’s beliefs about the nature of cognitive ability

Motivational theory and classroom management

It is believed that by providing motivating classroom environment prevents discipline problems. That following are the ways that motivation helps for classroom management.

1. The successful completion of challenging tasks.

Students who feel incapable of meeting the academic demands of classrooms may find more intrinsic rewards in misbehaviour than in doing their work. They need to be given moderately challenging tasks at which they can succeed.

2. Learners personal needs, desire, and interests

Adapting instruction to students’interests is an important way to prevent misbehaviour. Also if students do not have their basic psychological and safety needs met, it is hard for them to concentrates on academics.

3. Specific near term goal

Helping students to set productive and personally helpful goals and also helping students to modify maladaptive goals. When students find that they cannot belong or feel important through socially acceptable means, they misbehave and is goal direct.

4. Variety, complexity and surprise

These all help to promote curiosity and interest in students. Interesting and engaging instruction is one of your primary tools for preventing misbehaviour. When students are disinterested in instruction, they find other ways to entertain.

Reference

Heffner, (1999). Motivation and emotion. Retrieved from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/motivation.html

Kendra. C. (2013). Theories of motivation. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologytopics/tp/theories-of-motivation.htm

Constructivism and classroom management

The latest most fashionable word in education is "constructivism," Constructivism is a view of learning theory based on the belief that knowledge is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of development. This method of teaching promotes critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners. In this writing I am going to present how constructivist approach can be used for classroom management.

1. In constructivist classrooms, learners are active participants and take responsibilities for their own learning. So, involve student to make classroom rules and procedure. Rules and procedures prevent problem from occurring. Rules need to reflect a balance between providing students the necessary freedom to explore and learn and providing safe environment.

2. Constructivist teachers strive to provide a developmentally appropriate educational experience

Knowing that young children have short attention spans and restricted vocabularies, you can frequently vary instructional activities by using appropriate wordings. Knowing that some adolescents may be experiencing growing pains as they enter puberty helps you to understand the importance of allowing these students to get up and move around from time to time. Peers are very important for adolescents, so reprimand in private to avoid embarrassment.

3. Classrooms are communities where students collaborate to resolve issues

Classroom meeting: This provides an opportunity for students to participate in democratic procedures, cooperate, and develop mutual respect and responsible honesty.

Conflicts resolution approaches: This involves a step-by-step process for guiding individuals towards a mutually agreeable solution to a problem. Before that students are taught communication skills, as this is important for successful classroom interaction and problem solving approaches to classroom management. Communication skills involve two basic skills.

Active listening: This involves trying to understand what another person is thinking and feeling by listening and watching that person carefully. The listener then paraphrases that understanding so that the speaker can verify its accuracy. Active listening helps to create a warm and friendly atmosphere.

I-Message: This involves a three-part communication that can be used to confront another person. Begins with non-judgmental description of behaviour, followed by a statement of the effect of that behaviour for other people and finally a statement about the feeling associated with the behaviour and its effects.

Examples: When you are late to class, it interrupts our lesson and I feel frustrated.

An area of classroom can be designated as a conflict resolution area, or a time or time limit can be used.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. The theory originally evolved from behaviorism but now includes many of the ideas that cognitivists also hold; as a result it is some times called social cognitive learning.

Core concepts of Social learning theory

There are five core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn by observing others

Observational Learning

From its origin one core assertion within SCT has been that people learn through observation. This process is also described as vicarious learning or modeling because learning is a result of watching the behavior and consequences of models in the environment.

Types of Models

Direct Modeling

• Simply attempting to imitate the model's behavior.

• Live models include family members, friends, work associates and others with whom the individual has direct contact.

Symbolic Modeling

• Imitating behaviors displayed by characters in books, plays, movies, or television.

• The symbolic model is a pictorial representation of behavior.

Synthesized Modeling            

• Developing behaviors by combining portions of observed acts.

• A child uses a chair to get up and open the cupboard door after seeing her brother  use a chair to get a book from a shelf and seeing her mother open the cupboard door.

2. Outcome expectation

Outcome expectations reflect individuals' beliefs about what consequences are most likely to ensue if particular behaviors are performed. For instance, children may believe that if they get a hit during a baseball game the crowd will cheer, they will feel good and will be admired by their teammates. These beliefs are formed inactively through students' own past experiences and vicariously through the observation of others. Outcome expectations are important in SCT because they shape the decisions people make about what actions to take and which behaviors to suppress.

3. Perceived self-efficacy

Self-efficacy also has emerged as a prominent and influential concept within SCT. Self-efficacy reflects individuals' beliefs about whether they can achieve a given level of successful at a particular task (Bandura, 1997). Students with greater self-efficacy are more confident in their abilities to be successful when compared to their peers with lower self-efficacy.

4. Goal Setting.

Goals are also closely related to important processes within SCT. For instance, models can provide goals in the form of specific behavioral outcomes or more general standards for acceptable levels of performance. Goals are a function of the outcomes students expects from engaging in particular behaviors and the confidence they have for completing those behaviors successfully. Finally, goals are an important prerequisite for self-regulation because they provide objectives that students are trying to achieve and benchmarks against which to judge progress.

Self-regulation.

Many of the most common models, however, have strong roots in SCT. SCT models of self-regulation assume that self-regulation is dependent on goal setting. SCT views of self-regulation initially emphasized three sub-processes.

1.   Self-observation reflects students' ability to monitor or keep track of their own behaviors and outcomes.

2.   Self-judgment is the process through which students' evaluate whether their actions are effective and allow them to make progress toward their goals.

3.   Self-reaction occurs when students' respond to the evaluations they have made by modifying their behavior, rewarding it, or discontinuing it.

Reciprocal Determinism

• This is a broad assumption that acknowledges behavior is dynamic and is a consequence of the continuous interaction between the person, past events and the current environment

• This is not empirically tested and provides a nice out!

• The environment is composed of the social environment. Family, friends, peers at work or in the classroom

• And the physical environment

• Situation refers to the person’s perception of the environment